Monday, January 27, 2020
How Children Learn Disrespect From Their Parents
How Children Learn Disrespect From Their Parents Children these days often treat people with disrespect, for example their parents, teachers, elders, classmates, or even a person of the opposite color or even gender. Disrespect in children usually starts with their legal guardian or parents. Children learn disrespect from their parents by how they create a role model for their children, by how they approach and handle certain situations with their child, by the kind of relationship they carry with their spouse in front of their child, how their child sees them treat each other at home, and lastly from simple things like what kind of shows or movies that you allow your child or teen to watch on television. Children learn disrespect from their parents by what kind of example and role model their parents set for their children. For example if your at the corner store with your child or teen and you treat the lady at the register with disrespect and unkindness, there is a higher chance that your child will reflect those acts and treat others that way. On Tween and Teen Health it says Remember, teens learn how to behave by watching their parents. Your actions generally speak louder than words(Tween and Teen Health). Children learn disrespect by observing how their parents act, if you are a kind respectful person, your kid is more likely to be kind and respectful rather than being rude and disrespectful. They observe the way you talk and the way you treat and speak to others. Children live off of your rules and expectations, so dont make them think that treating others disrespectfully is acceptable. Not only can it make them look bad but it can make you look bad also. You dont want to set a bad example as a parent, because its possible if youre a bad parent, they can grow up to be bad parents too. On tween and teen health it also says Set a positive example and your teen will likely follow your lead(Tween and Teen Health). Its important to act the way you want your child to act because they are most likely going to mimic your actions.When your child sees you acting negatively and disrespectfully it makes them think that it is okay. You are the person your child looks up to, so whatever you do, they are going to think is okay even when you are not around. Children learn disrespect from their parents by the way they talk and approach them in certain situations. For instance if your child is acting up or talking to an adult in a disrespectful way, you should handle the situation correctly and you shouldnt yell and shout at them, you should talk to them in the correct manner, and let them know what they did wrong, and use the correct tone of voice and punishment to teach them what is correct. In Top 7 Parenting Skills anger management it says Use authoritative tone of voice to rein in your childs bad behavior(Top 7 Parenting Skills). If your child misbehaves or acts up, you must approach them in the right way, not by shouting, screaming or saying negative things to them, that may bring them down or trigger them to act in an inappropriate way. But of course always remember not to let them get away with it and make them think they are the one in charge, so make sure you step up and take on your role as a serious responsible parent. In the article it also says Remember that if you start to shout and fill your childs head with negative thoughts, your words will reinforce the negative behavior(Top 7 Parenting Skills). Not only by the way you talk to your children will affect their behavior, but also by what you say, never put negative thoughts into their head. When pointing out all the wrong things they do, dont forget to reward them and make them feel good and accomplished for the things that they do right. Always pointing out what they do wrong can make them feel like they never do anything right, you dont want them being put into a depressing or upset state of mind. You also dont want to hold a distant or bad relationship with your child, try to let them know that you are always there for them to talk openly about any situations. It is better to bring your child aside and talk to them about their misbehavior and actions and explain to them what is right from wrong. You must also show your child who is the boss and wh o is in charge, its important to teach your kid without letting them run all over you, act and talk to them like their parent not their friend or buddy. Another way children learn disrespect is from how they observe their parents relationship and actions towards each other at home. A good example is if you are having problems or a rough time with your significant other at home, its important to not fight, argue, disagree, or even mistreat each other in front of your child. In a health article it says School age children whove witnessed domestic violence, may model their views on gender roles based on what theyve seen(Jonathan Strickland).Exposing your child to this kind of violence can lead up to them misbehaving or even treating a person of the opposite sex unfairly or differently than the way they would treat someone of the same sex. It also says This could lead to boys growing up to be abusive toward women or girls(Jonathan Strickland). So not only can it cause your childs disrespectfulness to be present while they are a young child, but it can take long term consequences for when they grow older also. So never forget to keep your problems with your spouse behind doors and private, and to always make sure you dont expose your child to any of your relationship violence at home. Often times a childs parents will split up and try to work against each other to try and be the better or favorite parent. Doing that can confuse your child and they may act differently and be confused on whats wrong and right when getting different perspectives from two different parents. This is another thing that can take a toll on their behavior. Parents need to work together rather than against each other for the wellness of their child. Another way children learn disrespect from their parents is not only what they learn from them, but by simply what you allow, like what kind of movies and TV shows you allow them to watch or have access to at home. For example if you see your child or teen watching inappropriate TV shows or movies at home that are not acceptable for their age range, let them know that its not okay to view those kind of things, or even put parental control on certain channels or shows on your tv at home. In the article Lifestyle|Tweens and teens it says According to Professor Samineh Shaheem of the human relation institute in Dubai, 70 percent of the 20 most popular TV shows include sexual content(Lifestyle|Tweens).You dont want to allow your child or teen access to see these kind of inappropriate things happening on TV shows or even movies at home. In the article it also says When teens constantly watch their favorite characters engage unseemingly behavior, theyre likely to imitate what they see, whe ther its smoking, violence, or treating members of the opposite sex with disrespect(LIfestyle|Tweens). Children often look up to their favorite actors or characters, so you dont want them seeing their favorite role models acting violent or inappropriately because thats not the kind of example you want to be set for your child or teen. If your child sees their favorite actors taking part in drugs, gangs, fighting and other bad things, they have a higher chance of acting that way or maybe even thinking that acting like that is okay. The last thing you want is your child imitating bad things that they see on TV shows. If their isnt a way for you to always monitor what they watch, at least try to limit how much they watch TV or a certain show, constantly watching a inappropriate TV show can take a huge effect versus if they were only watching it once or twice a week. So children being disrespectful can happen and be caused in many different ways. Anywhere from what kind of example and role model you set for your child, by how you talk and approach your child in certain situations, by what you let your child see from your relationship with your partner at home along with if they are exposed to any domestic violence or abuse, and even by what youre letting your kid watch on Television shows and movies. Therefore children do learn disrespect from their parents or guardian, because in the end thats who raised them and gave them their first look on the difference between right and wrong. References Jonathan Strickland Whats the effect of childrens exposure to actual violence as victims or as witnesses? 24 August 2010. HowStuffWorks.com. 10 February 2017 HowStuffWorks.com Contributors What do right and wrong mean to your adolescents? 4 April 2011. HowStuffWorks.com. 10 February 2017 Top 7 Parenting Tips 11 March 2009. HowStuffWorks.com. 10 February 2017 Staff, Mayo clinic. Tween and Teen Health Tween and Teen Health. Mayo Clinic, Healthy Lifestyle, 20 July 2016, www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/tween-and-teen-health/basics/tween-and-teen-health/hlv-20049436.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
History of philosophy Essay
Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Traditions Analytic Continental Eastern Islamic Platonic Scholastic Periods Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Social philosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers Philosophy portal v t e The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context? To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras be understood even today? All cultures  be they prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular  have had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such theories have grown from different premises and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to) rationalism (theories arrived at through logic),empiricism (theories arrived at through observation), and even through leaps of faith, hope and inheritance (such as the supernaturalist philosophies and religions). History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development of philosophical ideas through time. Contents [hide] 1 Western philosophy 1. 1 Ancient philosophy 1. 2 Medieval philosophy. 1. 3 Renaissance philosophy 1. 4 Modern philosophy 1. 5 Contemporary philosophy 2 Eastern philosophy 2. 1 Babylonian philosophy 2. 2 Indian philosophy 2. 3 Persian philosophy 2. 4 Chinese philosophy 3 Abrahamic philosophy 3. 1 Jewish philosophy 3. 2 Christian philosophy 3. 3 Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 1 Religious roots 3. 3. 2 Transferring of Greek philosophy 3. 3. 3 Periods 3. 3. 3. 1 Early Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 3. 2 Mystical philosophy 3. 3. 3. 3 Transcendent Theosophy 3. 3. 3. 4 Modern era 3. 4 Judeo-Islamic philosophy 4 African philosophy. 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 External links Western philosophy[edit] Western philosophy has a long history, conventionally divided into four large eras – the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the Renaissance. The â€Å"Modern†is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from Post-Medieval through the specific period up to the 20th century. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the 20th century up to the present day. Ancient philosophy[edit] Further information: Ancient philosophy Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with Thales of Miletus, who was active around 585 B. C. and left us the opaque dictum, â€Å"all is water. †His most noted students were Anaximenes of Miletus (â€Å"all is air†) and Anaximander (all is apeiron). Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the next few centuries. Among the most important were Heraclitus (â€Å"all is fire†, all is chaotic and transitory), Anaxagoras (reality is so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by mind), the Pluralists and Atomists (the world is composite of innumerable interacting parts), the Eleatics Parmenides and Zeno (all is One and change is impossible, as illustrated by his famous paradoxes of motion), the Sophists(became known, perhaps unjustly, for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished). This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in Athens, which had become the dominant city-state in Greece. There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory[which? ] says that it occurred because Athens had a direct democracy. It is known from Plato’s writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See Battle of Lade). Another theory explains the birth of philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists. The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project – one still being pursued today – is Socrates, who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates’ awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including Plato), which led to his trial and executionin 399 B. C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, piety, and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles, and drink the poison hemlock. Socrates’ most important student was Plato, who founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied theSocratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato’s dialogues are the Theory of Forms, i. e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the things of this world, which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; That true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the city-state should be governed by a merit class of propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates’ words. Interestingly, in his most famous work, The Republic, Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put to death again, citing the philosophers’ relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern. Plato’s most outstanding student was Aristotle, perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher. Aristotelian logic was the first type oflogic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be valid. A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle’s syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, â€Å"All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C. †This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle’s syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for things that really exist (â€Å"no empty classes†) The application of Aristotelian logic is preceded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms. The memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for example: â€Å"Modus Ponens†had the form of â€Å"If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore B is true. †Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle’s 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object. A few logicians developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects. Medieval philosophy[edit] Further information: Medieval philosophy The history of western medieval philosophy is generally divided into two periods, early medieval philosophy, which started with St. Augustine in the mid 4th century and lasted until the recovery in the 13th century West of a great bulk of Aristotle’s works and their subsequent translation into Latin from the Arabic and Greek, and high medieval philosophy, which came about as a result of the recovery of Aristotle. This period, which lasted a mere century and a half compared to the nine centuries of the early period, came to a close around the time of William of Ockham in the middle of the 14th century. Western medieval philosophy was primarily concerned with implementing the Christian faith with philosophical reason, that is, â€Å"baptizing†reason. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the philosophy of Plato himself. The prominent figure of this period was St. Augustine who adopted Plato’s thought and Christianized it in the 4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was checked with the arrival of Aristotle’s texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers (including the great St. Anselm of Canterbury) up until the 13th century. During the later years of the early medieval period and throughout the years of the high medieval period, there was a great emphasis on the nature of God and the application of Aristotle’s logic and thought to every area of life. Attempts were made to reconcile these three things by means of scholasticism. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible. The point of this exercise was not so much to justify belief in God, since in the view of medieval Christianity this was self-evident, but to make classical philosophy, with its extra-biblical pagan origins, respectable in a Christian context. One monumental effort to overcome mere logical argument at the beginning of the high medieval period was to follow Aristotelian demonstration by starting from effects and reasoning up to their causes. This took the form of the cosmological argument, conventionally attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas. The argument roughly is that everything that exists has a cause. But since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must have been an uncaused â€Å"first cause. †This is God. Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments were used to prove God’s power and uniqueness. Another important argument for proof of the existence of God was the ontological argument, advanced by St. Anselm. Basically, it says that God is that than which nothing greater can be thought. There is nothing that simply exists in the mind that can be said to be greater than something that enjoys existence in reality. Hence the greatest thing that the mind can conceive of must exist in reality. Therefore, God exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward. In addition to St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Augustine and St. Anselm, other important names from the medieval period include Blessed John Duns Scotus, St. Bonaventure, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, and Pierre Abelard. The definition of the word â€Å"philosophy†in English has changed over the centuries. In medieval times, any research outside the fields oftheology or medicine was called â€Å"philosophy†, hence the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal dating from 1665, the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D. ) degree covers a wide range of subjects, and the Cambridge Philosophical Society is actually concerned with what we would now call science and not modern philosophy. Renaissance philosophy[edit] This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (May 2013) Main article: Renaissance philosophy Contemporary philosophical historiography emphasizes a great â€Å"gap†between Middle Ages and Modern thought. And often this â€Å"gap†is used as a mean to characterize the meaning of the word â€Å"modern†used in â€Å"modern philosophy†. However, a historical perspective (and philosophical ones less interested into a single solid â€Å"gap†) emphasizes the existence of a long period of transition between the teleologically driven centuries (running up the 13th or 14th centuries) and the rationalists-empiricists debates. As well as for the figurative arts, music, vernacular languages and literatures, and the Christian religion, philosophy was greatly renewed in The Renaissance. The Renaissance, spread into Europe from Italy and in particular from Northern Italy and Tuscany, also by the means of architecture, arts and literature, inaugurated new philosophical problems, and permitted a new era of thought, independent from the Roman Church. If most medieval philosophers were priests and monks, early and late Renaissance philosophers were a more heterogeneous population, including rhetors, magicians and astrologues, early empirical scientist, poets, philologists. The new era put together all these souls in the search for the human specificity. The study of humanae litterae overcame that of divinae litterae, and opened the way for modern skepticism and science. Many philosophers from the Renaissance are today read and remembered, even if often not categorized into a single category, but spread into modern philosophy (if they fit, especially if oriented towards empiricism and rationalism, like Galileo Galilei or Machiavelli) or instead put back into the Middle Ages, especially if heavily influenced by esoteric traditions (like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino and even Nicholas of Cusa and Giordano Bruno). Only a few, relatively â€Å"innocuous†philosophers are often fully recognized as Renaissance philosophers: Montaigne, Tommaso Campanella, Telesius among them. Modern philosophy[edit] Main article: Modern philosophy Further information: 17th-century philosophy, 18th-century philosophy, and 19th-century philosophy As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term â€Å"Modern Philosophy†that exist in practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the â€Å"Age of Reason†, where systematic philosophy became common, excluding Erasmus and Machiavellias â€Å"modern philosophers†. Another is to date it, the way the entire larger modern period is dated, from the Renaissance. In some usages, â€Å"Modern Philosophy†ended in 1800, with the rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the lumpers/splitters problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between â€Å"The Age of Reason†or â€Å"Early Modern Philosophers†and â€Å"The Enlightenment†; another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia’s philosophy section therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over periods, but it is important to note the variety of practice that occurs. David Hume A broad overview would then have Erasmus, Francis Bacon, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Galileo Galileirepresent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. 17th-century philosophy is dominated by the need to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, and Thomas Hobbes. This type of philosophy attempts to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other skeptical beliefs, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the dualismbetween spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism ofGeorge Berkeley (idealism) and Benedict de Spinoza (dual aspect theory). It was during this time period that the empiricism was developed as an alternative to skepticism by John Locke, George Berkeley and others. It should be mentioned that John Locke and Thomas Hobbes developed their well known political philosophies during this time, as well. The 18th-century philosophy article deals with the period often called the early part of â€Å"The Enlightenment†in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after Sir Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy. Thus Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu,Kant and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the American Revolution and American Enlightenment are part of The Enlightenment. Other prominent philosophers of this time period were David Hume and Adam Smith, who, along with Francis Hutcheson, were also the primary philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson who were philosophers of the American Enlightenment. Edmund Burke was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, namely Hume’s skeptism and reliance on tradition and the passions, and while supporting the American Revolution based on the established rights of Englishmen, rejected the â€Å"natural rights†claims of the Enlightenment and vehemently rejected the Rationalism of the French Revolution (see Reflections on the Revolution in France). The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a â€Å"dialectical†framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include Schopenhauer’s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as Adam Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions. Also in the 19th century, the Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard took philosophy in a new direction by focusing less on abstract concepts and more on what it means to be an existing individual. His work provided impetus for many 20th century philosophical movements, including existentialism. Contemporary philosophy[edit] Further information: Contemporary philosophy The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Edmund Husserl. Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of Heidegger, Russell, Karl Popper, and Claude Levi-Strauss. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism (Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus) and finallypoststructuralism (Gilles Deleuze, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida). Pragmatist Richard Rorty has argued that these and other schools of 20th century philosophy, including his own, share an opposition to classical dualism that is both anti-essentialist and antimetaphysical. [1] The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental philosophy. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism. The philosophy of the present century is difficult to clarify due to its immaturity. A number of surviving 20th century philosophers have established themselves as early voices of influence in the 21st. These include Noam Chomsky, Saul Kripke, and Jurgen Habermas. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction’s usefulness. A variety of new topics have risen to the stage in analytic philosophy, orienting much of contemporary discourse in the field of ethics. New inquiries consider, for example, the ethical implications of new media and information exchange. Such developments have rekindled interest in the philosophy of technology and science. There has been increased enthusiasm for highly specialized areas in philosophy of science, such as in the Bayesian school of epistemology. In contemporary continental thought, a number of developments are taking place. The field of postcolonial theory, championed in the late 20th century by theorists such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Homi K. Bhabha has established itself as a major academic presence. The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek remains tremendously popular in both academic and popular demographics, synthesizing Lacanian, Hegelian, and Althusserian Marxist thought in discussions of popular culture and politics. Zizek is also involved with the contemporary thrust to step beyond postmodernism and the linguistic turn of the 20th century. Key contributors to this movement are the French polymath Alain Badiou, and those classified under the blanket designation of speculative realism, includingQuentin Meillassoux and Ray Brassier. On the other hand, the American philosopher Judith Butler has strong support among many demographics in her close readings of language, gender, subjectivity, corporeality, kinship, war and non-violent ethics. As a result she has received strong criticism from Zizek to Martha Nussbaum and radical Zionists. Eastern philosophy[edit] Main article: Eastern philosophy In the West, the term Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of â€Å"the East†, namely Asia, including China,India, Japan, Persia and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture. Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in India and China. Babylonian philosophy[edit] See article Babylonian literature: Philosophy Indian philosophy[edit] See article Indian philosophy and Timeline of Eastern philosophers#Indian philosophers See also Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy and Jain Philosophy Indian philosophy primarily begins with the later part of Rig Veda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE. [2] Most of philosophy of the Rig Veda is contained in the sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya Sukta. Vedas are followed by Upanishads; the oldest, such as theBrhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the 8th century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz. , Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Upanishadic thoughts were followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Persian philosophy[edit] See article Iranian philosophy See also Zoroastrianism Chinese philosophy[edit] See article Chinese philosophy and Buddhist philosophy#Chinese Buddhism Confucianism can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. [citation needed] Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy, Taoism, developed in China around 200 BC. [citation needed] Abrahamic philosophy[edit] See also: Abrahamic religions Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the study and commentary of the common ancient Semitic tradition which can be traced by their adherents to Abraham (â€Å"Father/Leader of many†Hebrew (â€Å"Avraham†) Arabic (â€Å"Ibrahim†), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and as a prophet in the Qur’an and also called a prophet in Genesis 20:7). The standard text common to all of these subsequent traditions are what is known as the Hebrew Bible, roughly the first five books of the Old Testament, starting with the book of Genesis through to Deuteronomy. However, each of them added substantially different texts to their emerging canons, and hence their respective philosophical developments varied widely. Jewish philosophy[edit] Jewish philosophy Christian philosophy[edit] See article Christian philosophy Islamic philosophy[edit] See articles Islamic philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, and Modern Islamic philosophy Islamic philosophy as Henry Corbin describes is a philosophy whose development, and whose modalities, are essentially linked to the religious and spiritual fact of Islam. [3] In the other word, it represents the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by Muslims. [4] Religious roots[edit]. Theoretical questions were raised right from the beginning of Islam, questions which could to a certain extent be answered by reference to Islamic texts such as the Quran, the practices of the community and the traditional sayings of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and his Companions. [4] In fact, rational argumentation about Islamic doctrines starts with Quran itself, and has been followed up in the utterances of the Muhammad and especially in the sermons of Ali. This despite the fact that their style and approach are different from those of the Muslim theologians. [5] Though nothing definite can be said about the beginnings of theology among Muslims, what is certain is that discussion of some of the problems, such as the issue of predestination, free will and Divine Justice, became current among Muslims during the first half of the 2nd century of Islam coincides with 8th century. Perhaps the first formal centre of such discussions was the circle of Hasan al-Basri(d. 728-29). [5] Later several theological schools have emerged from 8th to 10th century. Mu’tazili theology originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) by Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748 A. D. ). [6] Transferring of Greek philosophy[edit] The early conquests of the Muslims brought them into close contact with centers of civilization heavily influenced by Christianity and also by Greek culture. Many rulers wished to understand and use the Greek forms of knowledge, some practical and some theoretical, and a large translation project started which saw official support for the assimilation of Greek culture. This had a powerful impact upon all areas of Islamic philosophy. Neoplatonism definitely became the prevalent school of thought, following closely the curriculum of Greek philosophy which was initially transmitted to the Islamic world. [4] Periods[edit] Henry Corbin has divided the history of Islamic philosophy into three periods. [7] Early Islamic philosophy[edit] The first period of Islamic philosophy coincides with Islamic golden age. During this time pure philosophical thought is usually usedAristotelianism and Neoplatonism thought as its sources. But it also influenced by Islamic thought and culture. Falaturi has shown in his research that how Hellenistic philosophy diverged in the context of Islamic culture. On the other hand Corbin has shown how mystic aspect of Islam, especially Shia affected philosophy. This period begins with al-Kindi and ends with Averroes(d. 1198). [7] On the other hand there were crucial theological debates between Muslim theologians. These discussion also helped to rise of rational debates about religion, especially Islam. Avicenna is one the most prominent figures of this period. He is a thinker who attempted to redefine the course of Islamic philosophyand channel it into new directions. Avicenna’s metaphysical system is built on the ingredients and conceptual building blocks which are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonic, but the final structure is more than the sum of its parts. [8] In the Islamic Golden Age, due toAvicenna’s successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism along with Islamic theology, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of early Islamic philosophy by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then. [9] Although this school was highly criticized by Muslim theologians, such as al-Ghazali, philosophers, like Averroes, and Sufis, Avicenna’s writings spread like fire and continued until today to form the basis of philosophic education in the Islamic world. For to the extent that the post-Averroistic tradition remained philosophic, especially in the eastern Islamic lands, it moved in the directions charted for it by Avicenna in the investigation of both theoretical and practical sciences. [8] Mystical philosophy[edit] After the death of Averroes, Islamic philosophy in the Peripatetic style went out of fashion in the Arab part of Muslim world, until the 19th century. Mystical philosophy, by contrast, continued to flourish, although no thinkers matched the creativity of Ibn Arabi or Ibn Sab‘in. In the Persian-speaking part, Islamic philosophy has continued to follow a largely Illuminationist curriculum, which is introduced by Suhrawardi. [4][7] Transcendent Theosophy[edit] The third period, according to Corbin, begins in the 16th century after emergence of Safavid dynasty in Persia. [7] The most prominent figure of this period is Mulla Sadra who introduced Transcendent Theosophy as a critical philosophy which brought together Peripatetic,Illuminationist and gnostic philosophy along with Ash’ari and Twelvers theology, the source of which lay in the Islamic revelation and the mystical experience of reality as existence. [10][11] This philosophy becomes dominant form of philosophy in Iran since 19th century. Shah Wali Allah extended Suhrawardi school of thought to the Indian subcontinent. [4] Modern era[edit] New trends have emerged during 19th and 20th centuries due to challenge of western philosophy and Modernity to traditional Islamic philosophy. On one hand some of the scholars such as Jamal-ad-Din Asadabadi and Muhammad Abduh sought to find rational principles which would establish a form of thought which is both distinctively Islamic and also appropriate for life in modern scientific societies, a debate which is continuing within Islamic philosophy today. Muhammad Iqbal is one of the prominent figure of this group who provided a rather eclectic mixture of Islamic and European philosophy. On the other hand some thinkers reacted to the phenomenon of modernity by developing Islamic fundamentalism.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria
Analysis of the challenges of religion and ethnicity on political stability in Nigeria’s fourth republic (1999-2011) INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Basically, Nigeria is a plural society and heterogeneous in virtually all the facet of life. The custom and tradition of Nigerians is so diverse to the extent that Nigeria as a country is now confronted with the problem of religion and ethnicity towards their political stability. The origin and history of ethnic conflict (societal wars and violence) can be traced from eternal (internal) state rivalry to external (physical).And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and other important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two persons. In general concept, the author of this work traces conflict back to the first and early Patriarchal of human history and ever since then, there has been an increase (in various dimen sions) of Conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, and group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature, to mention but few.In conforming to this idea, Badawi (2006) in his statement titled â€Å"World Apart†stated thus, â€Å"indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who had in fact shared a common beginning in the religion of Abraham†. In shedding more light in the above statement, Badawi statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off-springs of the said Abraham.Even before Abraham, there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes, and Kings. In about 88 B. C. , King Mithriadates VI of Pontus invaded Roman territory in Asian Minor. He advise d Asian debtors to kill their Roman creditors. Happy to reduce their credit card bills, the Asians massacred 80,000 Romans. Ethno-political conflicts have greatly shaped our present world and of course have its structural phenomenon, (William Easterly, 2001). For instances, the conflict we now call Israeli and Palestinian war, has been an ever-lengthening sort.The Assyrian, Babylonian war, by King Nebuchadnezzar of the hanging Garden in history, the Persia war, Alexander the Great (the Macedonian mad man in history), the German war of Adolf’s Hitler, the Roman wars, narrowing all these down, we came to the horn of African continent which seem to be an epidemic field of conflicts of diverse kinds till date. The giant-lion of African continent, just like the origin of conflict is said to have stated very old in human history, even so in the case of Nigeria, which can be traced to the colonial period of history. Conflict takes different sizes and shapes with diverse reasons and purposes.Majority of the conflicts takes time before their escalation and at such, could have been transformed right at their respective early stages. The history of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria is also traced back to the colonial transgressions that forced the ethnic groups of the northern and southern provinces to become an entity called Nigeria in 1914. In the case of Nigeria situation, disturbing history of colonialism, this generated hatred and conflict among different ethnic groups. The task of addressing this seed of conflict planted by the British has been a complex one.After weakening the former diverse kingdoms, Emperors, etc now called Nigeria and reordering the groups’ politics, the colonial powers failed in nation building and providing for the people's basic needs. Hence, unemployment, poverty increase, and due to these, conflict over scarce resources ensue. The Southern and Northern protectorates were also being amalgamated into a nation. Thereafte r, the merging of different colonies into one country called Nigeria was forcefully done without the people's consent. This was a major seed of conflict that is still troubling Nigeria today.This article is focused on the historical incidents of ethnic conflicts in within Nigeria societies, the cause of the conflicts and perhaps, the government actions towards ethnic conflict in the country. In conclusion, this paper will explore into decision-making (by the elites and those in authority) process has contributed immensely in generating the syndromes of conflict in the said state. The Nigerian political situation has witnessed more breaking of heads, than counting them. In fact, even when it has been convenient for heads to be counted, the outcome has always been the breaking of heads instead.Conflict in Nigeria is so intense because of lack of democratic behaviour. The head of the individual in the democratic context signifies citizenship. So when heads are broken in the Nigerian po litical community, the issue in respect of broken heads is citizenship. If conflict in Nigeria means the absence of democratic behaviour, it follows, therefore, that conflict in Nigeria is interwoven with the absence of democratic governance. Gurr (2000): has also shown that the incidence of conflicts at the global level declined in recent years with the deepening of democratisation.Nation-states where conflicts persist are those where what obtains is the democratisation of disempowerment (Ake 1996). Beyond the veneer of elections, the state remains ambushed, privatised, repressive and unpopular. The people who were tantalised by the prospect of a democratic revolution that would terminate decades of alienation and pauperisation have been short changed and given a ‘choice less democracy’ (Mkandawire 1999). The ‘credibility gap’ which fostered the De-linkage of the people from the state, and ignited social forces to struggle for democracy, is not being bridg ed (Rothchild 1995: 58).African peoples out of clear rational calculations sans atavistic attachments have turned their backs on the state ‘and given their loyalty to sub-national social formations such as the community, the sub nationality or ethnic groups’ (Ake 2000: 114). It is against this backdrop that the proliferation and exacerbation of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria in the post-transition period can be appreciated. This article adopts an analytical framework that holds that The interface between ethnicity and democratisation is found in absence of effective citizenship and good governance in post-transition societies.In the circumstance that democracy does not go beyond the conduct of multiparty elections to include improvement in the quality of life of the people, there is frustration, and people who already feel alienated from the state are vulnerable and likely to be mobilised around counter-elites who exploit extant popular alienation from the state by whipping up sectarian sentiments. This has been the case in Nigeria and several multi-ethnic states of Africa (Osaghae 1994).Although the foregoing theoretical discussion has focused on ethnicity, the term ethno-religious is adopted because some of the recent violent conflicts to be examined were triggered by religious issues. The relevance of religion is also underlined by the fact that in Nigeria ethnic boundaries tend to coincide with religion, with the exception of the Yoruba ethnic group (Ibrahim 1999). The Nigeria state was amalgamated in the year 1914 by lord lugard. The various geographical areas or territory which was amalgamated to form Nigeria by the colonialist comprises of various cleavages, clans, towns even there were kingdoms and hiefdoms with diverse culture, language, religion, norms values, customs and political structures etc. The focus of the research monogram is to examine the role of religion and ethnicity in Nigeria nascent democracy. In Nigeria esp ecially, religion plays a very vital and influential role in the society that has manifested itself as a potent force in the political development of the Nigerian state from pre-independence to post-independence. Hardly can the Nigerian state be talked about without reference to religion (Kukah, 1994; Falola, 1990; Kenny, 2006; International IDEA, 2000; Suberu, 2009).However, religion in Nigeria, at different levels, is mostly mentioned in negative terms. Or rather, historical events linked to religion tilts more towards its negative than its positive contribution to the Nigerian state. The Jihad, the civil war propaganda, the Sharia law controversy, the tensions provoked by the Nigerian accession to the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) and the incessant religious crises that have engulfed the Northern part mainly indicate that religion cannot be ignored or wished away in the Nigerian political development. Several religious crises have occurred in Nigeria.They have been docu mented as academic dissertations for some of them. This piece of work does not intend to start the discourse on religious violence anew but only recognizes the fact that as a recurrent phenomenon it is worth being explored further. Thus â€Å"Boko Haram†menace which gained global recognition and even press support ranging from July 2009 till date is a the central focus of this study together with other riots which has engulfed the Nigeria state from 1999 till date which most Nigeria educated elite believed that religion and ethnicity were the basic causes.The educated elite have conducted series of research on what the causes of this violent riots maybe. Most have concluded that it can be traced and linked to the failure of governance in Nigeria. 1. 2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS The mistake of 1914 has polarised the Nigeria society together with its citizens in which loyalty to the State is a mirage instead people pay loyalty to their various families and ethnic groups the effect of this can be traced to 1967 civil-war which disintegrate the country or in the political system which almost lead to secession of the country with the easterner believed to be the aggrieved ethnic in the war.Similarly Nigeria has a long history of religious crisis which has affected the political instability of Nigeria. The maintasine riot of 1980 can be said to be the first major religious riot in Nigerian history, claiming about 800 lives. The Boko Haram insurgence in the northern part of the country which has been directed mainly against the Christians, they have suffered a lot both physically, psychologically, economically, spiritually and even politically in the far North which has led political writers and pundits to affirm that Boko Haram conflict has its roots in Religion.The thrust of this work will be to examine the underlying reasons behind political instability in Nigeria using religion and ethnicity as a paradigm. 1. 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY. The study will cover the impa cts of religion and ethnicity towards the stabilization or in- stabilization of the Nigeria political system it will cover how religion and ethnicity have impacted on the political stability of Nigeria. Furthermore the study will emphasize more on the role the government is playing in stabilizing the un-stabilized country. 1. 4OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The following can be regarded as the aims and objective of the study 1.To know the meaning of religion, ethnicity, political stability, and political instability 2. To know how religion and ethnicity have negatively impacted on Nigerian political development 3. To develop possible solutions and panaceas to the problems of religions and ethnicity to Nigerian political in-stability 1. 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1 What meaning does religion, ethnicity and political instability carries 2 How has religion and ethnicity impacted on the political stability of Nigeria 3 what are the possible solutions to the problem of religion and ethnicity in Nigeri a political system 1. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Many a developing countries of the world are currently experiencing the problems which ethnicity and religion have caused. The ethnic problem which led to the apartheid era in South Africa is also the same ethnicity and religion problem which has almost disintegrated the Nigerian State. Recalling back to what happen during the civil war in the late sixties and early seventies which led to the introduction of the national youth service corp. by the then military president General Yakubu Gowon which aim at integrating back the almost disintegrated country.Books, Journals, Magazines, Pamphlets, and lot of researches have been written and carried out respectively on the issue of ethnicity and religion, and its impact on the Nigeria political stability. This research work will serve as an additional material to the issue on ethnicity and religion to political instability in Nigeria, this work will focus more on ethnicity and religion and its i mpact on Nigerian politics 1. 7RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology will be based on secondary data collections ranging from books, Journals Newspapers, News Magazines, Pamphlets and even the Internet.In conducting any research basically there are two methodologies employed by researchers which are the primary and the secondary methods. This research work will be basically conducted using the secondary methodology as earlier mentioned. 1. 8DEFINITION OF TERMS Ethnicity: According to the oxford advance learners dictionary ethnicity can simply mean â€Å"the fact of belonging to a particular race†from the dictionary meaning we can deduced the fact that Humans believed in race and they have passion for race which leads to humans ethnocentrism i. e. highly ethnocentric in nature.Ethnicity has a strategic interaction of persons and other actors, who have different beliefs, attitude’s, values and goals as they decide particular conflict the distribution of resource ’s and general issues of political rules within a context of norms, expectations and institutions. Any of the rule, expectation and institutions may be reversed, maintained or inverted by the individual who win the right to control them, in the course of those political negotiations that are sometimes called cooperation, and sometimes called war, and are usually somewhere between the two.In another sense, ethnic identity are political resources just like money or vote. Instrumentalist like Micheal Banton and Micheal Hecthtar, argue that ethnic identity are not inherent in group or socio-formation of people. They see ethnic identity as socio-capital brought to bear on the political negotiation table by different groups and at different times. Hutchinson and Smith also argue that ethnic identity are an important resource that political Elite employ in securing the support of the masses as a strategy for gaining a desired good.These goods and or goals are â€Å"measured in term s of wealth, power, and status and†¦ joining or national communities helps to secure these ends either by influencing the state, or in certain situations, through secession. Religion: religion on its own part can be regarded as the belief in the existence of God or gods and the activity that are connected in the worship of them. Religion can also be stress further by meaning one of the system of faith that are based on the belief in the existence of a particular God or gods.For example the Jewish religion, Christianity Islam and other world religion. Furthermore in the classical and ancient ages religion has achieved a lot in their politics for example the doctrine of Islam was used in many Arab nations has their constitution even up till the present age. The Ancient Romans, also, during the time of Constantine accepted Christianity as a religion and a mode of life which also affected their political terrain.Religion in the 21 century is now used narrowly towards Christianity a nd Islam even though other religion still exist but the former two religion have elevated to prominence that other religion are now beneath them. For instance about Political stability: can depict the mean of a system of politics in which the government of that State is experiencing a stable government and peaceful existence in the State or in otherworld’s a legitimately accepted government by the people. Democratically governed States are believed to be stable.In the global sense every political entity must be ruled democratically without internal oppression or external aggression. Any country of the world that is free from the aforementioned point are regarded as stable political system in other words internal oppression has cause a lot of havoc to many democracies of the world which has infringed on their stability as noted by Ojo 2002. Descent Rule: These covers a larger set of cases that we commonly understand to be ethnic than the rules that ethnic groups must have a my th of common ancestry or common origin.But it excludes several cases in which individuals routinely consider themselves, and are considered as members, of a group that we classify as ethnic even when their parents were not coded as members of this group. Take for example the category â€Å"Yoruba†when it was invented in Nigeria in the nineteenth century. At this time period, the parents of those who were classified as Yoruba were not themselves classified as Yoruba for the reason that this category did not exist during their lifetimes.According to Descent Rule, then, the category Yoruba in the nineteenth century would not be coded as ethnic. But the category Yoruba is universally coded as an ethnic category by all comparative political scientists, without making a distinction between time periods. As another example, consider the category â€Å"Backward Caste†in India, which included as members individuals who possessed a given set of last names and/or ancestral occu pations. The category was introduced by the Indian Central Government in 1990.Within a few years, 52% of the Indian population classified itself and was classified as backward. Yet the parents of those who termed themselves â€Å"Backward Caste†were not coded by themselves or by others as â€Å"Backward Caste†because, as in the case of the first generation of Yoruba’s, this category did not exist during their lifetimes Democracy: According to Abraham Lincoln he defines democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people.In this wise democracy connotes a system of government in which all the people in a country will have the outright say on the government of their country although in a representative manner meaning that they will elect representatives that will represent their interest in the government. Advanced countries if the world where democracy is practiced completely they have national identity as opposed to the developing world w here they have ethnic identity.Advanced democracies always believe in secularism in which every religion is accepted and embraced not a system in which part will have cognisance to a religion and the other will believe in other religion causing serious tension in such states like Nigeria. Federalism : Elasar (cited in Akande, 1996:1)†the formation of European union (EU) which simply begun as a trading partnership for coal and steel is now moving towards a more integrated political union founded upon federal principle of governance†.The African union (AU) which is the federation of African counties where a central government intended to be created with sharing or division of power among the federating unit, even the world highest organization body united Nation have in some little degree, evolved the principle of federalism. Federalism is a system of government which embraces unity in diversity. Federalism as a system of government is one in which there will be central a nd regional governments each one autonomous of each other.
Friday, January 3, 2020
Orden de deportación ¿se puede arreglar o apelar
El migrante que recibe una orden de deportacià ³n dictada por un juez de Inmigracià ³n tiene las siguientes opciones: esperar a que la orden se convierta en final y salir de EE.UU., apelar, presentar una mocià ³n y, en algunas ocasiones muy limitadas, arreglar para sacar los papeles o para permanecer en el paà s. Antes de continuar cabe destacar que la informacià ³n de este artà culo aplica a los proceso de deportacià ³n ordinaria, los cuales tienen lugar en Corte de Inmigracià ³n. No aplican a los casos de deportacià ³n exprà ©s ni expulsiones inmediatas que ocurren en la frontera.  ¿Cuà ¡ndo una orden de deportacià ³n se convierte en final y cuà ¡les son las consecuencias? Como regla general, cuando un juez migratorio dicta una orden de deportacià ³n, ICE no procede inmediatamente a ejecutar la remocià ³n, sino que espera a que la orden se convierta en final. Eso ocurre en cualquiera de las siguientes situaciones: Cuando el migrante renuncia a su derecho a apelar al final del proceso de deportacià ³n. En ese caso, podrà a ser detenido por ICE en ese momento.Cuando el migrante se reserva el derecho a apelar pero no presenta la apelacià ³n dentro de plazoCuando el migrante pierde la apelacià ³n y el BIA o el Procurador General (Attorney General) dicta una orden final de remocià ³n.Cuando el migrante recibe una salida voluntaria pero no presenta la fianza requeridaCuando el migrante recibe una salida voluntaria pero no cumple con la fecha de salida de EE.UU. Ademà ¡s, es siempre una orden de deportacià ³n final aquella que recibe un migrante in abstentia, es decir, cuando se le ha citado en corte migratoria y no se ha presentado. Una vez que la orden de deportacià ³n es final, ICE puede proceder a la deportacià ³n del migrante, a menos que, excepcionalmente, pueda obtener un alivio para permanecer en EE.UU. Apelar una orden de deportacià ³n Apelacià ³n ante el Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) Una vez que un juez de inmigracià ³n dicta una orden de deportacià ³n, el migrante puede recurrir la decisià ³n ante el BIA. Para ello, debe reservarse este derecho durante la parte final del proceso de deportacià ³n. Para presentar su apelacià ³n (Notice to Appeal), el migrante tiene un plazo de 30 dà as en los cuales no puede ser deportado. Si està ¡ en libertad, debe notificar a la corte de inmigracià ³n los cambios de direccià ³n. Si el migrante no presenta la apelacià ³n dentro del plazo de 30 dà as, su orden de deportacià ³n es final y puede ser deportado. Por el contrario, si apela, se debe esperar por la decisià ³n de BIA, la cual es vinculante, es decir, debe ser obedecida tanto por el juez de inmigracià ³n que fallà ³ en primera instancia como por el abogado del gobierno como por el migrante. El BIA es un tribunal conformado por 20 miembros y està ¡ ubicado en el estado de Virginia. Cada aà ±o resuelve un promedio de 30.000 casos, lo que equivale al 9 por ciento del total de sentencias emitidas por los jueces de inmigracià ³n. Una vez que se apela, el tribunal establece plazos para que las partes entreguen por escrito sus respectivos argumentos. Las decisiones del BIA son finales a menos que sean revocadas por el propio tribunal, el procurador general o una corte federal. Apelacià ³n judicial En algunos casos se permite que un migrante apele la decisià ³n del Tribunal de Apelaciones de Inmigracià ³n (BIA) ante una corte federal. Todas las formas de alivio discrecional que corresponde al inmigrante probar que reà ºne los requisitos legales para que se le conceda un alivio y que se lo merece. La Corte tiene libertad para decidir si lo concede o no. Cabe destacar que al ser cortes no migratorias aplican otras reglas y apelar es caro, de ahà que solo el 2 por ciento de los casos resueltos cada aà ±o en las cortes de inmigracià ³n sean apelados ante una corte federal de apelaciones, segà ºn estadà sticas de las propias cortes. Ademà ¡s, durante el proceso ante una corte de apelaciones los migrantes pueden ser deportados. Esta es una importante diferencia con las cortes de inmigracià ³n y con el BIA, donde los migrantes no pueden ser deportados mientras no se resuelvan sus procesos. Las mociones como recursos frente a orden de deportacià ³n final En casos muy especà ficos, un migrante con orden de deportacià ³n final podrà a presentar una mocià ³n para reabrir o para revisar e intentar parar asà la remocià ³n. Mocià ³n para reabrir Se presenta ante un juez de inmigracià ³n cuando el inmigrante tenga acceso a una nueva prueba que sea importante y que no tuviera a su disposicià ³n durante la audiencia de deportacià ³n. Deberà ¡ presentarse, con carà ¡cter general, en los 90 dà as siguientes a la orden final de deportacià ³n. Esta mocià ³n para reabrir no suspende la ejecucià ³n de la deportacià ³n, que sigue su curso, a menos que la corte o el Departamento de Seguridad Interna (DHS) acuerde un aplazamiento de la deportacià ³n. Sin embargo, hay una excepcià ³n a esta regla y es cuando se presenta la mocià ³n para reabrir un caso de orden de deportacià ³n dictada in absentia. Mocià ³n para revisar Se presenta ante el Tribunal de Apelaciones de Inmigracià ³n (BIA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Su objetivo es que se revise el caso argumentando que ha habido un error en la aplicacià ³n de la ley o en los hechos. Al igual que ocurre con la mocià ³n para reabrir el caso, aquà tampoco se suspende el proceso ordinario de ejecucià ³n de la deportacià ³n, a menos que una corte ordene un aplazamiento de la misma.  ¿Se puede arreglar cuando ya se tiene una orden de deportacià ³n final? Las posibilidades son pocas, aunque sà hay casos en los que se puede obtener una tarjeta de residencia permanente sin salir de EE.UU. a pesar de tener una orden de deportacià ³n final o paralizar temporalmente la ejecucià ³n de la orden de deportacià ³n. Ajuste de estatus Por ejemplo, si el migrante està ¡ casado con un ciudadano o tiene un hijo ciudadano mayor de 21 aà ±os que ha presentado una peticià ³n de familiar con el formulario I-130 que ha sido aprobado, podrà a calificar, en algunos casos, para un ajuste de estatus. Sin embargo, el mero hecho de estar casado con un estadounidense y tener hijos ciudadanos no para la deportacià ³n. Todas las opciones que se tienen para parar la deportacià ³n, como la cancelacià ³n, el asilo, la suspensià ³n, beneficios por ser familiar de militar, reservista o veterano y otras formas de alivio deben argumentarse durante el proceso de deportacià ³n y plantearse durante la audiencia previa conocida como Master Calendar. Stay of removal Aà ºn con orden de deportacià ³n final podrà a ser posible solicitar a ICE una suspensià ³n temporal de la deportacià ³n, conocida como stay of removal. El formulario para aplicar es el I-246. Debe presentarse en persona en una oficina de ICE junto con la documentacià ³n de apoyo y tiene un costo de presentacià ³n de $155. Si es aprobado, el migrante puede estar sujeto a à ³rdenes de supervisià ³n y puede estar obligado a dar fianza por un monto de al menos $1.500. Ademà ¡s, hay otras clases de stay of removal que pueden presentar los abogados ante una corte federal o ante BIA en casos concretos como, por ejemplo, para evitar la deportacià ³n mientras el caso se discute en corte federal. Ley privada En casos extremos y con mà ©ritos se puede solicitar a un miembro del Congreso de Estados Unidos que solicite la aprobacià ³n de una ley que proteja a un migrante de la deportacià ³n. La ley, conocida como Private Bill, raramente es aprobada. Sin embargo, tenà a el efecto de que durante los aà ±os que estaba pendiente se protegà a al migrante de la deportacià ³n. Sin embargo, en la actualidad ICE solo pararà ¡ temporalmente una deportacià ³n mientras la ley està © pendiente por seis meses, pudià ©ndose extender por otros 90 dà as. Para ello, es necesario que la peticià ³n la realice el presidente del comità © judicial del Senado o de la Cà ¡mara de Representantes o un subcomità ©.  ¿Quà © sucede cuando la orden de deportacià ³n es final y el migrante no puede obtener otro alivio? ICE debe deportar al migrante en 90 dà as, si bien este proceso puede tomar mà ¡s. Durante ese tiempo, el migrante puede estar detenido o en libertad. En este à ºltimo caso, puede ser deportado por ICE u optar por auto-deportarse. Si el migrante decide convertirse en un fugitivo se convierte asà en prioridad para ser deportado. Si en el futuro es arrestado en cualquier encuentro con la autoridad no tendrà ¡ derecho a presentarse en corte migratoria y serà ¡ deportado inmediatamente. Puntos clave:  ¿quà © se puede hacer cuando se tiene orden de deportacià ³n? Los migrantes que reciben una orden de deportacià ³n pueden apelar, dentro de plazo, al Board of Immigration Appeals. Esta apelacià ³n congela la orden de deportacià ³n.La presentacià ³n de mociones para reabrir caso o revisar no paran la deportacià ³n automà ¡ticamente, a menos que se conceda expresamente esa proteccià ³n.En casos limitados es posible arreglar los papeles con orden de deportacià ³n y dentro de EE.UU. mediante un ajuste de estatus. Son casos no comunes y que deben ser examinados por un abogado.Las medidas stay of removal y Private Bill paralizan temporalmente la ejecucià ³n de la deportacià ³n. Este artà culo es informativo. No es asesorà a legal para ningà ºn caso concreto.
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